Small-scale farming is a major growth area and offers the
best opportunity for entering the occupation.
American farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers direct
the activities of one of the world’s largest and most productive
agricultural sectors. They produce enough food and fiber to
meet the needs of the United States and for export.
Farmers and ranchers own and operate mainly family-owned
farms. They also may lease land from a landowner and operate
it as a working farm. The type of farm they operate determines
their specific tasks. On crop farms—farms growing grain, cotton,
other fibers, fruit, and vegetables—farmers are responsible
for preparing, tilling, planting, fertilizing, cultivating,
spraying, and harvesting. After the harvest, they make sure
that the crops are properly packaged, stored, or marketed.
Livestock, dairy, and poultry farmers must feed and care for
the animals and keep barns, pens, coops, and other farm buildings
clean and in good condition. They also plan and oversee breeding
and marketing activities. Horticultural specialty farmers
oversee the production of ornamental plants, nursery products—such
as flowers, bulbs, shrubbery, and sod—and fruits and vegetables
grown in greenhouses. Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish
in marine, brackish, or fresh water, usually in ponds, floating
net pens, raceways, or recirculating systems. They stock,
feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life sold for
consumption or used for recreational fishing.
Responsibilities of farmers and ranchers range from caring
for livestock, to operating machinery, to maintaining equipment
and facilities. The size of the farm or ranch often determines
which of these tasks farmers and ranchers will handle themselves.
Operators of small farms usually perform all tasks, physical
and administrative. They keep records for management and tax
purposes, service machinery, maintain buildings, and grow
vegetables and raise animals. Operators of large farms, by
contrast, have employees who help with the physical work that
small-farm operators do themselves. Although employment on
most farms is limited to the farmer and one or two family
workers or hired employees, some large farms have 100 or more
full-time and seasonal workers. Some of these employees are
in nonfarm occupations, working as truck drivers, sales representatives,
bookkeepers, and computer specialists.
Agricultural managers manage the day-to-day activities
of one or more farms, ranches, nurseries, timber tracts, greenhouses,
and other agricultural establishments for farmers, absentee
landowners, or corporations. Their duties and responsibilities
vary widely, but focus on the business aspects of running
a farm. On small farms, they may oversee the entire operation;
on larger farms, they may oversee a single activity, such
as marketing. Agricultural managers usually do not perform
production activities; instead, they hire and supervise farm
and livestock workers, who perform most of the daily production
tasks. In these cases, managers may establish output goals;
determine financial constraints; monitor production and marketing;
hire, assign, and supervise workers; determine crop transportation
and storage requirements; and oversee maintenance of the property
and equipment.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers make many managerial
decisions. Farm output and income are strongly influenced
by the weather, disease, fluctuations in prices of domestic
and foreign farm products, and Federal farm programs. In crop
production operations, farmers and managers usually determine
the best time to plant seed, apply fertilizer and chemicals,
and harvest and market the crops. They use different strategies
to protect themselves from unpredictable changes in the markets
for agricultural products. Many farmers and managers carefully
plan the combination of crops they grow, so that if the price
of one crop drops, they will have sufficient income from another
crop to make up for the loss. While most farm output is sold
directly to food-processing companies, some farmers—particularly
operators of smaller farms—may choose to sell their goods
directly through farmers’ markets or may use coöperatives
to reduce their financial risk and to gain a larger share
of the retail dollar. For example, in community-supported
agriculture (CSA), coöperatives sell shares of a harvest to
consumers prior to the planting season, thus freeing the farmer
from having to bear all the financial risks and ensuring the
farmer a market for the produce of the coming season.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers also negotiate
with banks and other credit lenders to get the best financing
deals for their equipment, livestock, and seed. They also
must keep abreast of constantly changing prices for their
products and manage the risk of fluctuating prices. Those
who plan ahead may be able to store their crops or keep their
livestock to take advantage of higher prices later in the
year. Those who participate in the risky futures market, where
contracts on future production of agricultural goods are bought
and sold, can minimize the risk of sudden price changes by
buying futures contracts which guarantee that they will get
at least a certain price for their agricultural goods when
they are ready to sell.
Like other businesses, farming operations have become more
complex in recent years, so many farmers use computers to
keep financial and inventory records. They also use computer
databases and spreadsheets to manage breeding, dairy, and
other farm operations.
The work of full-time farmers, ranchers, and agricultural
managers is often strenuous; work hours are frequently long,
and they rarely have days off during the planting, growing,
and harvesting seasons. Nevertheless, for those who enter
farming or ranching, the disadvantages are counterbalanced
by the quality of life in a rural area, working outdoors,
being self-employed, and making a living off the land. Farmers
and farm managers on crop farms usually work from sunrise
to sunset during the planting and harvesting seasons. The
rest of the year, they plan next season’s crops, market their
output, and repair machinery.
On livestock-producing farms and ranches, work goes on throughout
the year. Animals, unless they are grazing, must be fed and
watered every day, and dairy cows must be milked two or three
times a day. Many livestock and dairy farmers monitor and
attend to the health of their herds, which may include assisting
in the birthing of animals. Such farmers rarely get the chance
to get away, unless they hire an assistant or arrange for
a temporary substitute.
Farmers who grow produce and perishables have different demands
on their time. For example, organic farmers must maintain
cover crops during the cold months, thus keeping them occupied
with farming beyond the typical growing season.
Farmwork also can be hazardous. Tractors and other farm machinery
can cause serious injury, and workers must be constantly alert
on the job. The proper operation of equipment and handling
of chemicals are necessary to avoid accidents, safeguard one’s
health, and protect the environment.
On very large farms, farmers spend substantial time meeting
with farm managers or farm supervisors in charge of various
activities. Professional farm managers overseeing several
farms may divide their time between traveling to meet farmers
or landowners and planning the farm operations in their offices.
As farming practices and agricultural technology become more
sophisticated, farmers and farm managers are spending more
time in offices and at computers, where they electronically
manage many aspects of their businesses. Some farmers also
spend time at conferences exchanging information, particularly
during the winter months.
| Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement |
Growing up on a family farm and participating in agricultural
programs for young people, such as the National FFA Organization
or the 4-H youth educational programs, are important sources
of training for those interested in pursuing agriculture as
a career. However, modern farming requires increasingly complex
scientific, business, and financial decisions, so postsecondary
education in agriculture is important even for people who
were raised on farms.
The completion of a 2-year degree, or better, a 4-year bachelor’s
degree program in a college of agriculture, is becoming increasingly
important for farm managers and for farmers and ranchers who
expect to make a living at farming. A degree in business or
farm management with a concentration in agriculture is important,
but even after obtaining formal education, novices may need
to spend time working under an experienced farmer to learn
how to put into practice the skills learned through academic
training. A small number of farms offer, on a formal basis,
apprenticeships to help young people acquire such practical
skills.
Students should select the college most appropriate to their
specific interests and location. All State university systems
have at least one land-grant college or university with a
school of agriculture. Common programs of study include agronomy,
dairy science, agricultural economics and business, horticulture,
crop and fruit science, and animal science. For students interested
in aquaculture, formal programs also are available and include
coursework in fisheries biology, fish culture, hatchery management
and maintenance, and hydrology. Whatever one’s interest, the
college curriculum should include courses in agricultural
production, marketing, and economics.
Agricultural managers can enhance their professional status
through voluntary certification as an Accredited Farm Manager
(AFM) by the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers.
Accreditation requires several years of farm management experience,
the appropriate academic background—a bachelor’s degree or,
preferably, a master’s degree in a field of agricultural science—and
the passing of courses and examinations relating to the business,
financial, and legal aspects of farm and ranch management.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers need to keep
abreast of continuing advances in agricultural methods both
in the United States and abroad, as well as monitor changes
in governmental regulations that may affect methods or markets
for particular crops. Besides print journals that inform the
agricultural community, the spread of the Internet allows
quick access to the latest developments in areas such as agricultural
marketing, legal arrangements, and growing crops, vegetables,
and livestock. Electronic mail, online journals, and newsletters
from agricultural organizations also speed the exchange of
information directly between farming associations and individual
farmers.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers also must have
enough technical knowledge of crops, growing conditions, and
plant diseases to make decisions that ensure the successful
operation of their farms. A rudimentary knowledge of veterinary
science, as well as animal husbandry, is important for livestock
and dairy farmers. Knowledge of the relationship between farm
operations—for example, the use of pesticides—and environmental
conditions is essential. Mechanical aptitude and the ability
to work with tools of all kinds also are valuable skills for
a small-farm operator, who often maintains and repairs machinery
or farm structures.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers need the managerial
skills necessary to organize and operate a business. A basic
knowledge of accounting and bookkeeping is essential in keeping
financial records, while knowledge of sources of credit is
vital for buying seed, fertilizer, and other inputs necessary
for planting. It also is necessary to be familiar with complex
safety regulations and requirements of governmental agricultural
support programs. Computer skills are becoming increasingly
important, especially on large farms, where computers are
widely used for recordkeeping and business analysis. For example,
some farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers use personal
computers to access the Internet to get the latest information
on prices of farm products and other agricultural news. In
addition, skills in personnel management, communication, and
conflict resolution are equally important in the operation
of a farm or ranch business.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers held nearly
1.3 million jobs in 2004. About 83 percent were self-employed.
Most farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers oversee
crop production activities, while others manage livestock
and dairy production. Most farmers and ranchers operate small
farms on a part-time basis.
The soil, topography of the land, and climate often determine
the type of farming and ranching done in a particular area.
California, Texas, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas are the leading
agricultural States.
Market pressures and low prices for many agricultural goods
will cause more farms to go out of business over the 2004–14
period. The complexity of modern farming and keen competition
among farmers leave little room for the marginally successful
farmer. Therefore, the long-term trend toward the consolidation
of farms into fewer and larger ones is expected to continue
over the 2004–14 period and result in a continued decline
in employment of self-employed farmers and ranchers and slower-than-average
growth in employment of salaried agricultural managers. As
land, machinery, seed, and chemicals become more expensive,
only well-capitalized farmers and corporations will be able
to acquire many of the farms that become available. The larger,
more productive farms are better able to withstand the adverse
effects of climate and price fluctuations upon farm output
and income. Larger farms also may have advantages in obtaining
government subsidies and payments as these payments are usually
based on per-unit production.
In addition, the agriculture sector continues to produce
more with fewer workers. Increasing productivity in the U.S.
agriculture industry is expected to allow greater domestic
consumption needs and export requirements to be met with fewer
farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers overall. The
overwhelming majority of job openings for self-employed farmers
and ranchers will result from the need to replace farmers
who retire or leave the occupation for economic or other reasons.
Despite the expected continued consolidation of farmland
and the projected decline in overall employment of farmers,
ranchers, and agricultural managers, an increasing number
of small-scale farmers have developed successful market niches
that involve personalized, direct contact with their customers.
Many are finding opportunities in organic food production,
as more consumers demand food grown without pesticides or
chemicals. Others use farmers’ markets that cater directly
to urban and suburban consumers, allowing the farmers to capture
a greater share of consumers’ food dollars. Some small-scale
farmers belong to collectively owned marketing coöperatives
that process and sell their product. Other farmers participate
in community-supported agriculture coöperatives that allow
consumers to directly buy a share of the farmer’s harvest.
Aquaculture may continue to provide some new employment opportunities
over the 2004–14 period. New concerns about overfishing and
the depletion of the stock of some wild fish species will
likely lead to more restrictions on deep-sea fishing, even
as public demand for the consumption of seafood continues
to grow. This demand has spurred the growth of aquaculture
farms that raise selected aquatic species—such as shrimp,
salmon, trout and catfish—in pens or ponds. Aquaculture’s
presence even in landlocked States has increased as farmers
attempt to diversify and cater to the growing demand for fish
by consumers. In addition, growing demand for horticulture
products, such as flowers, ornamentals, trees, shrubs, and
other nonedibles, is expected to produce better employment
opportunities for greenhouse and nursery farmers and managers.
Incomes of farmers and ranchers vary greatly from year to
year because prices of farm products fluctuate with weather
conditions and other factors influencing the quantity and
quality of farm output and the demand for those products.
A farm that shows a large profit one year may show a loss
the following year. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
the average net cash farm business income for farm operator
households in 2004 was $15,603. This figure, however, does
not reflect that farmers often receive government subsidies
or other payments that supplement their incomes and reduce
some of the risk of farming. Additionally, most farmers—primarily
operators of small farms—have income from off-farm business
activities or careers, often greater than that of their farm
income.
Full-time, salaried farm managers had median weekly earnings
of $621 in 2004. The middle half earned between $464 and $890.
The highest paid 10 percent earned more than $1,264, and the
lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $350.
Farmers and self-employed farm managers make their own provisions
for benefits. As members of farm organizations, they may derive
benefits such as group discounts on health and life insurance
premiums.
Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers strive to improve
the quality of agricultural products and the efficiency of
farms. Others whose work is related to agricultural products
include agricultural engineers, agricultural and food scientists,
agricultural workers, and purchasing agents and buyers of
farm products.
For general information about farming and agricultural occupations,
contact either of the following organizations:
- Center for Rural Affairs, P.O. Box 406, Walthill, NE 68067.
Internet: http://www.cfra.org/
- National FFA Organization, The National FFA Center, Attention
Career Information Requests, P.O. Box 68690, Indianapolis,
IN 46268-0960. Internet: http://www.ffa.org/
For information about certification as an accredited farm
manager, contact:
- American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers,
950 Cherry St., Suite 508, Denver, CO 80222. Internet: http://www.asfmra.org/
For information on the USDA’s program to help small farmers
get started, contact:
For information on aquaculture, diversified agriculture,
education, training, or community-supported agriculture, contact
either of the following organizations:
- Alternative Farming System Information Center (AFSIC),
National Agricultural Library USDA, 10301 Baltimore Ave.,
Room 132, Beltsville, MD 20705-2351. Internet: http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic
- Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA),
the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service,
P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702. Internet: http://www.attra.ncat.org/
-
Source: Bureau of Labor
Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational
Outlook Handbook, 2006-07 Edition,
