Leonardo
da VinciLeonardo
da Vinci (Vinci,
Italy, April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519, Cloux, France) was an Italian Renaissance
polymath: an architect, musician, anatomist, inventor, engineer, sculptor, geometer,
and painter. He has been described as the archetype of the "Renaissance man" and
as a universal genius, a man infinitely curious and infinitely inventive. He is
also considered one of the greatest painters that ever lived. In
his lifetime, Leonardo — his surname is unknown, "da Vinci" means "from
Vinci" — was an engineer, artist, anatomist, physiologist and much more. His
full birth name was "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", meaning "Leonardo, of ser
Piero from Vinci". Leonardo is famous for his paintings, such as the Mona Lisa
and The Last Supper, as well as for influential drawings such as the Vitruvian
Man. He designed many inventions that anticipated modern technology, such
as the helicopter, tank, use of solar power, the calculator, etc., though few
of these designs were constructed or were feasible in his lifetime. In addition,
he advanced the study of anatomy, astronomy, and civil engineering. Of his works,
only a few paintings survive, together with his notebooks (scattered among various
collections) containing drawings, scientific diagrams and notes.
Portrait
in red chalk, circa 1512 to 1515, widely accepted as a genuine self-portrait,
although somewhat disputed. Life Personal
life 
Plato
(detail of The School of Athens by Raphael), believed to be based on Leonardo's
likeness. The pointing finger was a noted feature of Leonardo The
first known biography of Leonardo was published in 1550 by Giorgio Vasari who
wrote Vite de' piu eccelenti architettori, pittori e scultori italiani
("The lives of the most excellent Italian architects, painters and sculptors"),
and later became an independent painter in Florence. Most of the information collected
by Vasari was from first-hand accounts of Leonardo's contemporaries (Vasari was
only a child when Leonardo died), and it remains the first reference in studying
Leonardo's life. Leonardo,
the illegitimate son of a Florentine notary named Ser Piero and a local peasant
woman called Caterina, was born before modern naming conventions developed in
Europe; his name "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", simply means "Leonardo, son
of [Mes]ser Piero, from Vinci". Leonardo signed his works "Leonardo" or "Io, Leonardo"
("I, Leonardo"). Leonardo
grew up with his father, Ser Piero, in Florence where he started drawing and painting.
He started school when he was 5 years old. His early sketches were of such quality
that his father soon showed them to the painter Andrea del Verrocchio, who subsequently
took on the fourteen-year old Leonardo as an apprentice. In this role, Leonardo
also worked with Lorenzo di Credi and Pietro Perugino. - But
the greatest of all Andrea's pupils was Leonardo da Vinci, in whom, besides a
beauty of person never sufficiently admired and a wonderful grace in all his actions,
there was such a power of intellect that whatever he turned his mind to he made
himself master of with ease.[citation needed] (Vasari)
It
is apparent from the works of Leonardo and his early biographers that he was a
man of high integrity and very sensitive to moral issues. His respect for life
led him to being a vegetarian for at least part of his life (although the term
"vegan" would fit him well, as he even entertained the notion that taking milk
from cows amounts to stealing. Under the heading, "Of the beasts from whom cheese
is made," he answers, "the milk will be taken from the tiny children." [1]). Vasari
reports a story that as a young man in Florence he often bought caged birds just
to release them from captivity. He was also a respected judge on matters of beauty
and elegance, particularly in the creation of pageants. RelationshipsLeonardo
kept his private life particularly secret, going as far as writing his journals
in code. He also claimed to have a distaste of physical relations: his comment
that "the act of procreation and anything that has any relation to it is so disgusting
that human beings would soon die out if there were no pretty faces and sensuous
dispositions", was later interpreted by Sigmund Freud, in an analysis of the artist,
as indicative of his "frigidity" (Gesammelte Werke, bd VIII, 1909-1913).
Freud concludes that Leonardo is driven by a homosexual libido, one that is sublimated
in his scientific investigations. Indeed, Leonardo surrounded himself with handsome
youths throughout his life, and allowed his art to reflect an appreciation of
masculine beauty. His lasting and loving relationship with young men and lack
of close relationships with women, together with surviving legal records and contemporary
writings have led some modern historians to conclude that he had a strong erotic
interest, one focused exclusively on males.(disputed —
see talk page) The
first known instance of his interest in youths occurred in 1476. While still living
with Verrocchio, he was twice accused anonymously of sodomy with a 17 year-old
model, Jacopo Saltarelli, a youth already known to the authorities for his sexual
escapades with men. After two months in jail, he was acquitted, allegedly because
no witnesses stepped forward, but actually on the strength of his father's respected
position. (Saslow, 1986, p.197) For some time afterwards, Leonardo and the others
were kept under observation by Florence's Officers of the Night - a Renaissance
organisation charged with suppressing the practice of sodomy, as shown by surviving
legal records of the Podestà and the Officers of the Night. Leonardo's
alleged love of boys was a topic of discussion even in the sixteenth century.
In "Il Libro dei Sogni " (The Book of Dreams) a fictional dialogue on l'amore
masculino (male love) written by the contemporary art critic and theorist
Gian Paolo Lomazzo, Leonardo appears as one of the protagonists and declares,
"Know that male love is exclusively the product of virtue which, joining men together
with the diverse affections of friendship, makes it so that from a tender age
they would enter into the manly one as more stalwart friends." In the dialogue,
the interlocutor inquires of Leonardo about his relations with his assistant,
il Salaino, "Did you play the game from behind which the Florentines love
so much?" Leonardo answers, "And how many times! Keep in mind that he was a beautiful
young man, especially at about fifteen." 
Leonardo's
servant and assistant, Caprotti il Salaino by an anonymous painter (1495) Gian
Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed il Salaino ("The Little Unclean One" i.e.,
the devil), was described by Vasari as "a graceful and beautiful youth with fine
curly hair, in which Leonardo greatly delighted." Il Salaino entered Leonardo's
household in 1490 at the age of 10. The relationship was not an easy one. A year
later Leonardo made a list of the boy’s misdemeanors, calling him "a thief,
a liar, stubborn, and a glutton." The "Little Devil" had made off with money and
valuables on at least five occasions, and spent a fortune on apparel, among which
were twenty-four pairs of shoes. Nevertheless, il Salaino remained his companion,
servant, and assistant for the next thirty years, and Leonardo’s notebooks during
their early years contain pictures of a handsome, curly-haired adolescent. Il
Salaino's name also appears (crossed out) on the back of an erotic drawing (ca.
1513) by the artist, The Incarnate Angel, at one time in the collection
of Queen Victoria. It is seen as a humorous and revealing take on his major work,
St. John the Baptist, also a work and a theme imbued with homoerotic overtones
by a number of art critics such as Martin Kemp and James Saslow (Saslow, 1986,
passim). Another erotic work, found on the verso of a foglio in the Atlantic
Codex, depicts il Salaino's behind, towards which march several penises on
two legs (Augusto Marinoni, in "Io Leonardo", Mondadori, Milano 1974, pp.288,
310). Some of Leonardo's other works on erotic topics, his drawings of heterosexual
human sexual intercourse, were destroyed by a priest who found them after his
death. In 1506,
Leonardo met Count Francesco Melzi, the 15 year old son of a Lombard aristocrat.
Melzi himself, in a letter, described Leonardo's feelings towards him as a sviscerato
et ardentissimo amore ("a passionate and most fiery love"). (Crompton, p.269)
Salai eventually accepted Melzi's continued presence and the three undertook journeys
throughout Italy. Though Salai was always introduced as Leonardo's "pupil", he
never produced any work of artistic merit. Melzi, however, became Leonardo's pupil
and life companion, and is considered to have been his favorite student. Both
of these relationships follow the pattern of eroticized apprenticeships which
were frequent in the Florence of Leonardo's day, relationships which were often
loving and not infrequently sexual. (See Historical pederastic couples.) Besides
them, Leonardo had many other friends who are figures now renowned in their fields,
or for their influence on history. These included Cesare Borgia, in whose service
he spent the years of 1502 and 1503. During that time he also met Niccolò Machiavelli,
with whom later he was to develop a close friendship. Also among his friends are
counted Franchinus Gaffurius and Isabella d'Este, whose portrait he drew while
on a journey which took him through Mantua. (Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships
epigraph, p. 148 & N120 p.298) Professional
lifeThe
earliest known dated work of Leonardo's is a drawing done in pen and ink of the
Arno valley, drawn on the 5th of August, 1473. It is assumed that he had his own
workshop between 1476 and 1478, receiving two orders during this time. From
around 1482 to 1499, Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan [2], employed Leonardo and
permitted him to operate his own workshop, complete with apprentices. It was here
that seventy tons of bronze that had been set aside for Leonardo's "Gran Cavallo"
horse statue (see below) were cast into weapons for the Duke in an attempt to
save Milan from the French under Charles VIII in 1495. When
the French returned under Louis XII in 1498, Milan fell without a fight, overthrowing
Sforza [3]. Leonardo stayed in Milan for a time, until one morning when he found
French archers using his life-size clay model of the "Gran Cavallo" for target
practice. He left with Salai and his friend Luca Pacioli (the first man to describe
double-entry bookkeeping) for Mantua, moving on after 2 months to Venice (where
he was hired as a military engineer), then briefly returning to Florence at the
end of April 1500. In
Florence he entered the services of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI,
acting as a military architect and engineer; with Cesare he travelled throughout
Italy. In 1506 he returned to Milan, now in the hands of Maximilian Sforza after
Swiss mercenaries had driven out the French. From
1513 to 1516, he lived in Rome, where painters like Raphael and Michelangelo were
active at the time, though he did not have much contact with these artists. However,
he was probably of pivotal importance in the relocation of David (in Florence),
one of Michelangelo's masterpieces, against the artist's will. In
1515 Francis I of France retook Milan, and Leonardo was commissioned to make a
centrepiece (a mechanical lion) for the peace talks between the French king and
Pope Leo X in Bologna, where he must have first met the King. In 1516, he entered
Francis' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé (also called
"Cloux") next to the king's residence at the royal Chateau Amboise. The King granted
Leonardo and his entourage generous pensions: the surviving document lists 1,000
écus for the artist, 400 for Melzi (named "apprentice"), and 100 for Salai ("servant").
In 1518 Salai left Leonardo and returned to Milan, where he eventually perished
in a duel. Francis became a close friend. Leonardo
da Vinci died at Clos Lucé, France, on 2nd May, 1519 (legend says he died in
Francis's arms). According to his wish, 60 beggars followed his casket. He was
buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in the castle of Amboise. Although Melzi
was his principal heir and executor, Salai was not forgotten; he received half
of Leonardo's vineyard. 
One
of his first paintings done in Florence, the Benois Madonna (1478) ArtLeonardo
pioneered new painting techniques in many of his pieces. One of them, a colour
shading technique called "Chiaroscuro", used a series of glazes custom-made by
Leonardo. It is characterized by subtle transitions between colour areas. Another
effect created by da Vinci is called sfumato, which creates an atmospheric haze
or smoky effect. Chiaroscuro is a technique of bold contrast between light
and dark. Early
works in Florence (1452-1482)Leonardo
was apprenticed to the artist Verrocchio in Florence when he was about 15. In
1476 Leonardo worked with Verrocchio to paint The Baptism of Christ for
the friars of Vallombrosa. He painted the angel at the front and the landscape,
and the difference between the two artists' work can be seen, with Leonardo's
finer blending and brushwork. Giorgio Vasari told the story that when Verrochio
saw Leonardo's work he was so amazed that he resolved never to touch a brush again. Leonardo's
first painting completed wholly by himself was the Madonna and Child completed
in 1478; at the same time, he also painted a picture of a little boy eating sherbet.
From 1480 to 1481, he created a small Annunciation painting, now in the Louvre.
In 1481 he also painted an unfinished work of St. Jerome. Between 1481 and 1482
he started painting The Adoration of the Kings (also known as The Adoration
of the Magi). He made extensive, ambitious plans and many drawings for the
painting, but it was never finished, as Leonardo's services had been accepted
by the Duke of Milan, to where he traveled.
The
Last Supper fresco in Milan (1498) Leonardo
spent 17 years in Milan in the service of Duke Ludovico (between 1482 and 1499).
He did many paintings, sculptures, and drawings during this time. He also designed
court festivals, and drew many of his engineering sketches. He was given free
reign to work on any project he chose, though he left many projects unfinished,
completing only about six paintings during this time. These include The Last
Supper (Ultima Cena or Cenacolo, in Milan) in 1498 and Virgin
of the Rocks in 1494. In 1499 he painted Madonna and Child with St. Anne.
He worked on many of his notebooks between 1490 and 1495. He
often planned grandiose paintings with many drawings and sketches, only to leave
them unfinished. One of his projects involved making plans and models for a monumental
seven-metre-high (24 ft) horse statue in bronze called "Gran Cavallo". Because
of war with France, the project was never finished. (In 1999 a pair of full-scale
statues based on his plans were cast, one erected in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the
other in Milan [4].) The bronze intended for use in the building of the statue
was used to make cannon, and victorious French soldiers used the clay model of
the statue for target practice. The Hunt Museum in Limerick, Ireland has a small
bronze horse thought to be the work of an apprentice from Leonardo's original
design. When the
French invaded Milan in 1499, Ludovico Sforza lost control, forcing Leonardo to
search for a new patron. Nomadic
Period - Italy and France (1499-1519) < Between
1499 and 1516 Leonardo worked for a number of people, travelling around Italy
doing several commissions, before moving to France in 1516. This has been described
as a 'Nomadic Period'. [5] He stayed in: - Mantua
(1500)
- Venice (1501)
- Florence (1501-06)
known sometimes as his Second Florentine Period.
- Travelled
between Florence and Milan staying in both places for short periods before settling
in Milan.
- Milan
(1506-13) (known sometimes as his Second Milanese Period, under the patronage
of Charles d'Amboise until 1511)
- Rome
(1514)
- Florence
(1514)
- Pavia, Bologna,
Milan (1515)
- France
(1516-19) (patronage of King Francis I)
In
1500 he went to Mantua where he sketched a portrait of the Marchesa Isabella d'Este.
He left for Venice in 1501, and soon after returned to Florence. After
returning to Florence, he was commissioned for a large public mural commemorating
a great military triumph in the history of Florence, by the Grand Council Chamber
in the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of government of the Florentine Republic (Zollner
p. 164), The Battle of Anghiari; his rival Michelangelo was to paint the
opposite wall. After producing a fantastic variety of studies in preparation for
the work, he left the city, with the mural unfinished due to problems with getting
paid by his employer and more importantly by his choice of technique, which instead
of the fresco technique he experimented again (as in the last supper) with oil
binders hoping to extend the time to manipulate the paint (Zollner p172-178).
The incomplete painting was destroyed in a war in the middle of the sixteenth
century. Most
evidence proves that he began work on the Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda,
now at the Louvre in Paris) in 1503 and continued to work on it until 1506, working
sporadically on it well after that ( Sasson p 22). It is likely to be Lisa de
Gherardini del Giocondo, wife of a silk merchant, Francesco del Giocondo. Commissioned
by her husband to commemorate the birth of their second son as well as moving
to a new home (zollner p240). He most likely kept it with him at all times, and
did not travel without it. Much is attributed to the importance of this painting,
primarily why it is the most famous painting in the world. In short, it was famous
at the time of its contemporaries for many different reasons than it is now. Leonardo
Da Vinci's use of sfumato (the smoky effect he has on his work) transcended convention
of the time, as did the sitter's angle, contrapposto, and the birds eye view of
the background. For the most part it has become famous for all of the above and
for the insurmountable amount of media attention it has received, in other words,
it has become famous for being famous. He
painted St Anne in 1509. Between 1506 and 1512, he lived in Milan and under the
patronage of the French Governor Charles d'Amboise, he painted several other paintings.
These included The Leda and the Swan, known now only through copies as
the original work did not survive. He painted a second version of The Virgin of
the Rocks (1506-1508). While under the patronage of Pope Leo X, he painted St.
John the Baptist (1513-1516). During
his time in France, Leonardo made studies of the Virgin Mary for The Virgin
and Child with St. Anne, and many drawings and other studies. Selected
works - The
Baptism of Christ (1472-1475) – Uffizi, Florence, Italy (from Verrocchio's
workshop; angel on the left-hand side is generally agreed to be the earliest surviving
painted work by Leonardo)
- Annunciation
(1475-1480) – Uffizi, Florence, Italy
- Ginevra
de' Benci (c. 1475) – National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., United
States
- The Benois
Madonna (1478-1480) – Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
- The
Virgin with Flowers (1478-1481) – Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany
- Adoration
of the Magi (1481) – Uffizi, Florence, Italy
- >The
Madonna of the Rocks (1483-86) – Louvre, Paris, France
- Lady
with an Ermine (1488-90) – Czartoryski Museum, Krakow, Poland
- >Portrait
of a Musician (c. 1490) – Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan, Italy
- Madonna
Litta (1490-91) – Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
- La
belle Ferronière (1495-1498) – Louvre, Paris, France
- Last
Supper (1498) – Convent of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy
- The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist (c. 1499-1500) –
National Gallery, London, UK
- Madonna
of the Yarnwinder 1501 (original now lost)
- Mona
Lisa or La Gioconda (1503-1505/1507) – Louvre, Paris, France
- The
Madonna of the Rocks or The Virgin of the Rocks (1508) – National
Gallery, London, UK
- Leda
and the Swan (1508) - (Only copies survive – best-known example in Galleria
Borghese, Rome, Italy)
- The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne (c. 1510) – Louvre, Paris, France
- St.
John the Baptist (c. 1514) – Louvre, Paris, France
- Bacchus
(or St. John in the Wilderness) (1515) – Louvre, Paris, France
The
rhombicuboctahedron, by Leonardo, as it appeared in the Luca Pacioli's Divina
Proportione, 1509. Science
and engineeringRenaissance
humanism saw no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts,
and his studies in science and engineering are as impressive and innovative as
Leonardo's artistic work, recorded in notebooks comprising some 13,000 pages of
notes and drawings, which fuse art and science. These notes were made and maintained
through Leonardo's travels through Europe, during which he made continual observations
of the world around him. He was left-handed and used mirror writing throughout
his life. This is explainable by the fact that it is easier to pull a quill pen
than to push it; by using mirror-writing, the left-handed writer is able to pull
the pen from right to left. He wrote his diaries (journals) using mirror writing. His
approach to science was an observational one: he tried to understand a phenomenon
by describing and depicting it in utmost detail, and did not emphasize experiments
or theoretical explanations. Throughout his life, he planned a grand encyclopedia
based on detailed drawings of everything. Since he lacked formal education in
Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist. AnatomyLeonardo
started to discover the anatomy of the human body at the time he was apprenticed
to Andrea del Verrocchio, as his teacher insisted that all his pupils learn anatomy.
As he became successful as an artist, he was given permission to dissect human
corpses at the hospital Santa Maria Nuova in Florence. Later he dissected also
in Milano in the hospital Maggiore and in Rome in the hospital Santo Spirito (the
first mainland Italian hospital). From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated with the doctor
Marcantonio della Torre (1481 to 1511). In 30 years, Leonardo dissected 30 male
and female corpses of different ages. Together with Marcantonio, he prepared to
publish a theoretical work on anatomy and made more than 200 drawings. However,
his book was published only in 1580 (long after his death) under the heading Treatise
on painting. Leonardo
drew many images of the human skeleton, and was the first to describe the double
S form of the backbone. He also studied the inclination of pelvis and sacrum and
stressed that sacrum was not uniform, but composed of five vertebrae. He was also
able to represent exceptionally well the human skull and cross-sections of the
brain (transversal, sagittal, and frontal). He drew many images of the lungs,
mesentery, urinary tract, sex organs, and even coitus. He was one of the first
who drew the fetus in the intrauterine position (he wished to learn about "the
miracle of pregnancy"). He often drew muscles and tendons of the cervical muscles
and of the shoulder. He was a master of topographic anatomy. He not only studied
the anatomy of human, but also of other beings. It is important to note that he
was not only interested in structure but also in function, so he was an anatomist
and physiologist at the same time. Because he actively searched for bodily deformed
people to paint them, he is also considered to be the beginner of caricature. His
study of human anatomy led also to the design of the first known robot in recorded
history. The design, which has come to be called Leonardo's robot, was probably
made around the year 1495 but was rediscovered only in the 1950s. It is not known
if an attempt was made to build the device. He correctly worked out how heart
valves eddy the flow of blood yet he was unaware of circulation as he believed
that blood was pumped to the muscles where it was consumed. A diagram drawing
Leonardo did of a heart inspired a British heart surgeon to pioneer a new way
to repair damaged hearts in 2005. [6] Inventions
and engineeringFascinated
by the phenomenon of flight, Leonardo produced detailed studies of the flight
of birds, and plans for several flying machines, including a helicopter powered
by four men (which would not have worked since the body of the craft would have
rotated) and a light hang glider which could have flown.1
On January 3, 1496 he unsuccessfully tested a flying machine he had constructed. In
1502 Leonardo da Vinci produced a drawing of a single span 720-foot (240 m) bridge
as part of a civil engineering project for Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople.
The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosphorus known as
the Golden Horn. It was never built, but Leonardo's vision was resurrected in
2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway. Owing
to his employment as a military engineer, his notebooks also contain several designs
for military machines: machine guns, an armoured tank powered by humans or horses,
cluster bombs, a working parachute, etc. even though he later held war to be the
worst of human activities. Other inventions include a submarine, a cog-wheeled
device that has been interpreted as the first mechanical calculator, and a car
powered by a spring mechanism. In his years in the Vatican, he planned an industrial
use of solar power, by employing concave mirrors to heat water. While most of
Leonardo's inventions were not built during his lifetime, models of many of them
have been constructed with the support of IBM and are on display at the Leonardo
da Vinci Museum at the Château du Clos Lucé in Amboise[7]. His
notebooksLeonardo's
notebooks were on four main themes; architecture, elements of mechanics, painting,
and human anatomy. These notebooks - originally loose papers of different types
and sizes, distributed by friends after his death - have found their way into
major collections such as the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the
Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, and the British Library. The British Library has
put a selection from its notebook (BL Arundel MS 263) on the web in the Turning
the Pages section. [8] The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work
of Leonardo's in private hands. It is owned by Bill Gates, and is displayed once
a year in different cities around the world. Why
Leonardo did not publish or otherwise distribute the contents of his notebooks
remains a mystery to those who believe that Leonardo wanted to make his observations
public knowledge. Technological historian Lewis Mumford suggests that Leonardo
kept notebooks as a private journal, intentionally censoring his work from those
who might irresponsibly use it (the tank, for instance). They remained obscure
until the 19th century, and were not directly of value to the development of science
and technology. In January 2005, researchers discovered the hidden laboratory
used by Leonardo da Vinci for studies of flight and other pioneering scientific
work in previously sealed rooms at a monastery next to the Basilica of the Santissima
Annunziata, in the heart of Florence.[9] In
fictionWith
the genius and legacy of Leonardo da Vinci having captivated authors and scholars
generations after his death, many examples of "Da Vinci fiction" can be found
in culture and literature. Such an example is "The Da Vinci Code" by Dan Brown,
published 2003. Leonard
of Quirm, a character in the Discworld series of novels, is based largely on Leonardo
Da Vinci. Further
reading - Michael
J. Gelb (1998). How to Think Like Leonardo da Vinci: Seven Steps to Genius
Every Day, Delacorte Press. ISBN 0385323816 (paperback).
- Michael
H. Hart (1992). The 100, Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0806513500 (paperback).
- Jean
Paul Richter (1970). The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, Dover. ISBN 0486225720
and ISBN 0486225739 (paperback). 2 volumes. A reprint of the original 1883
edition.
- Frank
Zollner & Johannes Nathan (2003). Leonardo Da Vinci: The Complete Paintings
and Drawings, Taschen. ISBN 3822817341 (hardback).
- Fred
Bérence (1965). Léonard de Vinci, L'homme et son oeuvre, Somogy. Dépot
légal 4° trimestre 1965.
- Charles
Nicholl (2005). Leonardo da Vinci, The Flights of the mind, Penguin. ISBN
0-140-29681-6.
- Simona
Cremante (2005). Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor, Giunti.
ISBN 8809038916 (hardback).
- John
N. Lupia, "The Secret Revealed: How to Look at Italian Renaissance Painting,"
Medieval and Renaissance Times, Vol. 1, no. 2 (Summer, 1994): 6-17. (ISSN 1075-2110)
References External
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